Sea Floor Spreading and the Marianas

What is sea floor spreading?

-the process by which new seafloor is formed as it moves away from spreading centers in mid-ocean ridges.

What are some of the major land forms that are created from plate movement?

-mountains, rift valleys, volcanoes, and ocean trenches.

How were the Mariana Islands formed?

-they were formed by underwater volcanoes along the Marianas Trench.

What evidence exists today that the plates are still moving and that the islands are ancient volcanoes?

-recent volcanic activities, and earthquakes.

What is an atoll?

-a coral reef that develops as a ring around a central lagoon.

Why are atolls mainly found on the Pacific?

-because the Pacific Ocean floor has the most volcanic activities; thus the pacific has many coral reefs.

Critical Thinking!

Why are most oceanic trenches found in the Pacific Ocean?

features of the Pacific-its floor, islands, and coasts--can be explained by the theory of continental drift. This theory says that the crust of the Earth is divided into thin, rigid plates that are moving. New crustal material is formed along these ridges by volcanic action. As this new material is added it pushes the plates apart and causes their motion. As the ocean plates are pushed toward the continental plates from the mid-ocean ridges, they are pushed below the continental plates into the Earth's interior. As they descend, oceanic trenches are formed. These are relatively narrow, linear, and very deep valleys that lie parallel to the continental coasts. The Pacific has the greatest number of these trenches. Underneath most of the Pacific Ocean is the very large Pacific Plate. In the eastern Pacific, off Central America, is the small Cocos Plate, and west of South America is the Nazca Plate. The Philippine Sea Plate is east of the islands of the same name, and the Eurasian Plate underlies the seas west of the islands of East Asia. The floor of the Pacific is divided into two parts each roughly half of the floor but each is very different from the other. The eastern half has few mountains or ridges, and therefore few islands, but the western half has many of both. The eastern part, but not the western, is crossed by many cracks arranged in bands called fracture zones that run parallel to each other--mostly at right angles to the coasts of the Americas.

Fish of the Marianas

Got Fish?

I recently read a couple of articles online that fish may not be around too long. Because of negligence, over fishing, and pollution we are at risk of fish extinction. The next generation may not see the many beautiful creatures of the sea. The Marianas need to take some kind of action now to prevent fish scarcity so that many generations to come may have the same luxury we do today.

I love the ocean and the many creatures in it. Some of my favorite dishes include fish and seafood. At first, I didn’t grasp the concept of protecting some of the islands’ location from fishermen. I always believed that a fisherman was out fishing to feed his family and/or generate some income, which is an admirable thing to do considering the economic state we are in today. But after reading the articles, I now understand and appreciate why there are sanctuaries around the Mariana Islands. Unlike the many fisheries around the world, the local fishermen use spear, rods, nets, and boats for trolling for the fortunate ones. Major fisheries around the world use high-technology for detecting and capturing an abundance of fish and other sea life. This could be damaging because sometimes their intentions are to catch tuna, for example, but dolphins and many other sea creatures are caught in nets. In the Marianas, fishing is more of an essential part of a family’s life. Although it may not be as alarming to us as the rest of the world, we should be just as aware and careful about our surrounding waters. The sanctuaries being protected around our islands are a good way of being proactive. The opposition may say there’s a lot of fish to go around. But when the time comes when there’s no fish at all, we’ll regret and not forget that we were part of the problem. There’s never enough of anything in this world. We need to make the best of what we have and protect what’s left for us.

Questions? Comments? Send me one.

Squid

click on image to enlarge.CLASSIFICATION:
Squid are a large, diverse group of cephalopods. Squid are members of the class CEPHALOPODA, subclass COLEOIDEA, and the order TEUTHIDA. There are 2 suborders, MYOPSINA and OEGOPSINA. The order Teuthida is a member of the superorder DECAPODIFORMES.

HABITAT:
Squid are most commonly found between the ranges of Greenland and Florida. Abundance and distribution vary greatly, both seasonally and annually. Distribution between offshore and inshore are greatly influenced by environmental conditions, with water being the major factor. Evidence suggests that highest concentrations occur where bottom temperatures exceed 6 C. There seems little doubt that temperature at intermediate depths as well as other biological factors such as predator and prey abundance and their distribution also play an important role.

FOOD SOURCE:
Adults eat voraciously, consuming a variety of crustacea and fish. Smaller squid tend to feed more heavily on small crustacea such as euphasids, turning more to fish and fellow squid as they mature. The extent of cannibalism among squid is unclear, but it would appear that the larger specimens are the most inclined to eat their own species.

LIFE CYCLE:
Squid is believed to live no more than 12 to 18 months. Spawning females create large, clear, almost neutrally buoyant egg masses by releasing a gel-like substance with the fertilized eggs. The gel reacts with seawater to form a globular-shaped egg mass, up to I m in diameter, containing about 100,000 eggs of about I mm in diameter. After a period of growth and development, the larval squid becomes a juvenile about 6 mm in mantle length with adult features. By this time, the proboscis has split to form the two tentacles, and the other eight arms have grown larger.

UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS:
The head end of the squid bears 8 arms and two tentacles, each a form of muscular hydrostat containing many suckers along the edge. These tentacles do not grow back if severed. In the mature male squid, one basal half of the left ventral tentacle is hectocotylised and ends in a copulatory pad rather than suckers. It is used for intercourse between mature males and females.
The mouth of the squid is equipped with a sharp horny beak mainly made of chitin and cross-linked proteins, and is used to kill and tear prey into manageable pieces. The beak is very robust, but does not contain any minerals, unlike the teeth and jaws of many other organisms, including marine species.

1. What is DNA?

DeoxyriboNucleic Acid.

2. What are the 4 bases?

Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, and Guanine. (A, T, C, & G)

3. What 2 pieces of information did the scientists need to resolve the elusive structure of DNA?

One was that the phosphate backbone was on the outside with bases on the inside; another that the molecule was a double helix. It was also important to figure out that the two strands run in opposite directions and that the molecule had a specific base pairing.

4. What are the specific bases?

Adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine

5. How does the pairing rule effect the shape and structure of DNA?

the amount of adenine always equals the amount of thymine. The same goes for the pair guanine and cytosine. With this information at hand Watson was able to figure out the pairing rules. If the bases were paired in this way, each rung of the twisted ladder in the helix would be of equal length, and the sugar-phosphate backbone would be smooth.

6. What does the DNA do during cell division?

During cell division, the DNA molecule is able to "unzip" into two pieces. One new molecule is formed from each half-ladder, and due to the specific pairing this gives rise to two identical daughter copies from each parent molecule.

7. How many base pairs does E.Coli have? How long does it take to replicate? How is the DNA packaged in the cell?

E. coli bacteria is made up of 4 million base pairs. The single-cell bacterium can copy its genome and divide into two cells once every 20 minutes. In E. coli the single circular DNA molecule is curled up in a condensed fashion.

8. How many base pairs does the Human DNA have? How long does it take to replicate? How is the DNA packaged?

The DNA of humans is composed of approximately 3 billion base pairs, making up a total of almost a meter-long stretch of DNA in every cell in our bodies. The human DNA is packaged in 23 distinct chromosome pairs. Here the genetic material is tightly rolled up on structures called histones.

1. What is RNA? How different is it from DNA?

RiboNucleic Acid. Unlike the double stranded DNA, RNA is only made up of a single strand. Furthermore, the base T, thymine, is replaced by U, uracil in RNA. This RNA string is used by the organism as a template when it builds protein molecules, sometimes called the building blocks of the body. For example, your muscles and hair are mostly made up of proteins.

2. How are the RNA messages formed?

The alphabet in the RNA molecule contains 4 letters, i.e. A, U, C, G as previously mentioned. To construct a word in the RNA language, three of these letters are grouped together. This three-letter word are often referred to as a triplet or a codon. An example of such a codon is ACG. The letters don't have to be of different kinds, so UUU is also a valid codon. These codons are placed after each other in the RNA molecule, to construct a message, a RNA sequence.

3. How are the RNA messages interpreted?

Every organism has an almost identical system that is able to read the RNA, interpret the different codons and construct a protein with various combinations of the amino acids mentioned previously. In fact every RNA word or codon, corresponds to one single amino acid. These codons and their correlation with the amino acids in a protein sequence is what defines the genetic code.

Cell Cycle (Mitosis & Meiosis)

1. Describe cell cycle.

The cell cycle is the orderly sequence of events that occurs from the time a cell divides to form two daughter cells to the time those daughter cells divide again. The phases of the cell cycle occur in meiosis as well as mitosis.

2. What is nuclear division?

In nuclear division also known as, Karyokinesis, the nucleus divides during this process. Nuclear division includes several subphases. Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase.

3. What is interphase?

During interphase the cell is growing and metabolic activity is very high. Toward the end of interphase, new DNA is synthesized and the chromosomes are replicated. Each chromosome of the homologous pair is then composed of two sister chromatids.

4. Cytokenises is the process in which the cytoplasm divides and two identical daughter cells are formed.

5. Homologous chromosomes: In diploid (2n) organisms, the genome is composed of homologous chromosomes. One chromosome of each homologous pair comes from the mother (called a maternal chromosome) and one comes from the father (paternal chromsosome).

6. Phases of mitosis:

Prophase, Interphase, Anaphase, Metaphase, and Telophase.

7. Phases of meiosis and how different from mitosis.

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase.

Meiosis follows phases similar to those in mitosis, but the outcome of the process is very different. The DNA of the parent cells is replicated in interphase preceding both mitosis and meiosis. However, in meiosis, replication is followed by two divisions.

Meiosis reduces the chromosome number of the parent cell so that four daughter cells are produced, each with one-half the chromosome number of the parent cell. Each daughter cell contains only one chromosome from each homologous pair.

8. Describe the process and purpose of crossing over.

Crossing over occurs during prophase I of meiosis. In prophase I of meiosis, the replicated homologous pair of chromosomes comes together in the process called synapsis, and sections of the chromosomes are exchanged. You can see that after crossing over, the resultant chromosomes are neither entirely maternal nor entirely paternal, but contain genes from both parents. Synapsis and crossing over occur only in meiosis

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants and other organisms (algae) take light energy and convert it into chemical energy in the form of carbohydrates.

Cellular Respiration

ROS production during cellular respiration. Cellular respiration is the process by which food molecules react with oxygen and are broken down to carbon dioxide and water with a net gain of captured energy in the form of ATP molecules. In about 5 percent of the time, oxygen is reduced to highly reactive superoxide. This is probably due to a “leak” of single electrons at a particular site of the mitochondrial electron transport chain. When superoxide undergoes further reduction, H2O2 and the extremely reactive hydroxyl radical is formed. It happens spontaneously or under the influence of various enzymes. The transition from H2O2 to hydroxyl radicals is favored in the presence of metals such as iron or copper. It also happens during abnormal exposure to ionizing radiation.

Animal Cell

CLICK ON IMAGES

cell membrane - the thin layer of protein and fat that surrounds the cell. The cell membrane is semipermeable, allowing some substances to pass into the cell and blocking others.

centrosome - (also called the "microtubule organizing center") a small body located near the nucleus - it has a dense center and radiating tubules. The centrosomes is where microtubules are made. During cell division (mitosis), the centrosome divides and the two parts move to opposite sides of the dividing cell. The centriole is the dense center of the centrosome.

cytoplasm - the jellylike material outside the cell nucleus in which the organelles are located.

Golgi body - (also called the Golgi apparatus or golgi complex) a flattened, layered, sac-like organelle that looks like a stack of pancakes and is located near the nucleus. It produces the membranes that surround the lysosomes. The Golgi body packages proteins and carbohydrates into membrane-bound vesicles for "export" from the cell.

lysosome - (also called cell vesicles) round organelles surrounded by a membrane and containing digestive enzymes. This is where the digestion of cell nutrients takes place.

mitochondrion - spherical to rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. The inner membrane is infolded many times, forming a series of projections (called cristae). The mitochondrion converts the energy stored in glucose into ATP (adenosine triphosphate) for the cell.

nuclear membrane - the membrane that surrounds the nucleus.

nucleolus - an organelle within the nucleus - it is where ribosomal RNA is produced. Some cells have more than one nucleolus.

nucleus - spherical body containing many organelles, including the nucleolus. The nucleus controls many of the functions of the cell (by controlling protein synthesis) and contains DNA (in chromosomes). The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear membrane.

ribosome - small organelles composed of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules that are sites of protein synthesis.

rough endoplasmic reticulum - (rough ER) a vast system of interconnected, membranous, infolded and convoluted sacks that are located in the cell's cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane). Rough ER is covered with ribosomes that give it a rough appearance. Rough ER transports materials through the cell and produces proteins in sacks called cisternae (which are sent to the Golgi body, or inserted into the cell membrane).

smooth endoplasmic reticulum - (smooth ER) a vast system of interconnected, membranous, infolded and convoluted tubes that are located in the cell's cytoplasm (the ER is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane). The space within the ER is called the ER lumen. Smooth ER transports materials through the cell. It contains enzymes and produces and digests lipids (fats) and membrane proteins; smooth ER buds off from rough ER, moving the newly-made proteins and lipids to the Golgi body, lysosomes, and membranes.

vacuole - fluid-filled, membrane-surrounded cavities inside a cell. The vacuole fills with food being digested and waste material that is on its way out of the cell.

Questions:
1. What is a vacuole?
2. What surrounds the nucleus?
3. The jellylike material outside the cell nucleus in which the organelles are located is called a what?

1. Explain how currents contribute to the distribution of marine organisms around the planet.
Currents have an effect to the distribution of marine organisms.

The currents control the water temperature as it continually circulates throughout the ocean. Currents also supply very little oxygen in greater depths of the ocean. Some organisms need a certain degree of temperature and when currents control the temperature of the ocean this can greatly affect them.

2. The primary factor influencing ocean currents is temperature regulation. What might happen to the ocean currents (and has happened in the past) as global warming increases?

As global warming increases, global sea level will increase. Since the glaciers and ice caps are melting, fresh water dumped in the ocean, a lighter water over denser and warmer water. This may also affect the climate patterns

3. Explain how density changes cause currents.

Currents are caused by differences in the density of the ocean. These differences are due to changes in salinity. Salinity is a measure of salt dissolved in seawater. More salinity means greater density. During the evaporation cycle, salt is left behind and causes an increase in salinity. Dense water will sink and spread out causing temperature changes and therefore changes current.

"The Hike"

Last Saturday's lab for Marine Biology class, we took a little hike up Mt. Laulau. Well I don't even know if that's even considered a mountain. But the hike was pretty steep going up about a quarter of a mile. Bree Reynolds, our instructor, invited Angello Villagomez to be our tour guide. He taught us a lot about the place and how they have been working to restore its natural beauty. He also mentioned how burning of the trees in the area affect land and the ocean below the hill. Unfortunately, when hunters decide to clear the area by burning down trees and brushes, it causes erosion. Most of all, the ash left on the ground causes some kind of chemical reaction and during heavy rains, this gets washed down to the ocean causing damage to sealife. The hike was a good exercise activity and a very educational one too.

Question: What atoms are in sour foods?

Hypothesis:
The most higher the concentration of loose hydrogen atom, the more sour the food.

Procedures:
1. Get five cups for each food dropping.
2. Add five drops of food droppings to each cup.
3. Add a drop of dye to each cup.


Data:
The color of the dye shows the concentration of loose hydrogen atoms in the food Pink has the highest concentration of loose hydrogen atoms and is the most sour.
Next is orange, then olive green, then green, and lastly blue.

Results:
Lemon juice has the highest concentration of loose hydrogen atom. Vinegar is next, then orange juice, milk, and finally water.

Explanation:
The more concentration of loose hydrogen atom in a substance the sour it gets.


Sour Food:
What are acids and bases?
Acids are substances that produce hydrogen ion in water solution. Bases are substances that hydroxide ion in water solution.
What is a molecule?
The smallest unit in a substance that can exist alone and retain the character of that substance.
Why is pH important in the ocean?
pH of the ocean is determined by a need to balance the deposition and burial of CaCO3 on the sea floor against the influx of Ca2+ and CO32- into the ocean from dissolving rocks on land, called weathering.

Question: What molecules make the hole in the bread?

Hypothesis: Sugar when mixed with yeast turns into carbon dioxide.

Procedures:
Add 3 scoops of yeast into a tube.
Add 3 scoops of sugar.
Fill the tube 3/4s full with warm water.
Use a stick to stir the yeast and sugar into the water until the water is the same color as the yeast.
Reaction in the tube takes time.
Get a flashlight and flash the light to the side of the tube.
Notice the small bubbles streaming up



Data: Yeast is a living thing that feed on the sugar molecules. It breaks the sugar molecules apart into new molecules. Carbon dioxide gas molecules make the tiny bubbles you saw in the tube.


Results: The chemical reaction in the tube also happens in bread. Yeast added to bread dough breaks apart the sugar molecules in flour. The carbon dioxide gas molecules make bubbles. The carbon dioxide gas bubbles are trapped in the bread dough and leave holes when the bread is baked.


Explanation: The chemical reaction between yeast added to bread dough breaks apart sugar molecules and leaves holes in the bread when it is baked.


Holes in Bread:
What gas causes the bubble?
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
How was the gas produced?
Yeast converts sugar molecules into CO2.
How does CO2 get in the ocean?
The ocean absorbs CO2. CO2 dissolves easily in cold water.

Tides (revised)

Shape of Life

What organism is thought to be the first multi-cellular animal?

The ancient sponge

How is it the same and different from animals today?

Similarities: They both have molecules, cells, and different animal cells.

Differences: The way they feed, reproduce, and the way they move (sponges don't move)

How do scientists know its an animal?

The built up of thier cells and molecules. And collagen - a protien held by all living organisms.

What evidence do scientists have to prove that other animals (multi-cellular) evolved from this organism?

Thru genetics

What more do you want to know?

I personally want to know:
What made the cells interact?
How to determine if its a male or female?